By Ankush Arora 

Rivers, mountains, buildings, placenames, borders, and two busy coastlines make up Britain’s view of early seventeenth-century India. More specifically, they represent the view of Sir Thomas Roe (1581–1644), the first English ambassador to the Mughal court. The map is titled, “A Description of East India: Conteyning th’Empire of the Great Mogoll,” a reference to the Mughal dynasty, which ruled the subcontinent from 1526 to 1858. Printed in 1619, it is one of the earliest English maps to record India’s geography in detail. It is also a significant document that establishes Britain’s diplomatic dialogue with the court of the Mughal emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–27).

Roe undertook the mapping of India as part of a diplomatic mission for England’s king James I (r. 1603–25), and it was a culmination of his three years traveling the subcontinent (1615–1618). The primary objective of this mission was to secure for Britain a formal trade agreement from the Mughals. The British East India Company, founded in 1600, sought a foothold in India. The map itself, created by the English navigator William Baffin (1584–1622), marked the official beginning of British history in the region. It was not a neutral document. The map provided the basis for British mercantile and territorial expansion into India over the next two centuries, leading eventually the co-option of India as a British colony (1858–1947).

Naming was central to Roe’s exercise when he mapped India’s land. These names tell us a great deal about Britain’s self-interested perceptions of India during the early seventeenth century. The map’s title mentions East India, which is synonymous with the word “East Indies,” commonly used in European literature to refer to India and nearby regions in Southeast Asia. Referring to this region as East India reflects the commercial motivations of the East India Company, which was eager to procure spices and textiles from these regions.

One of the intriguing details about the map is the erroneous perception that India’s only rulers were the Mughals, despite the fact that other kings including the Rajputs and the Tuluvas ruled the country’s provinces. The Mughals left Roe and his fellow Britons awestruck: they had established one of the wealthiest and most powerful empires in the world. The grand promenade of trees connecting the Mughal capitals of Lahore and Agra on the map expresses this fascination with the dynasty’s opulence and architecture, which Roe records in numerous other descriptions as well.

Roe’s decision to include the Mughal genealogical seal from Jahangir’s period embodies the critical role of the dynasty for Britain’s ambitions in the region, and the diplomatic nature of the ambassador’s mission. The circular seal is visible in the map’s top right corner. It shows the names of the Mughal emperors and their ancestors. Imperial seals represented Mughal authority, and were included in firmans or permits. They also accompanied letters sent to foreign kings, such as Jahangir’s letter to James I, which Roe carried to England. The letter and the seal established the success of Roe’s embassy, which resulted in Jahangir granting trading rights to Britain in 1619, after several failed attempts by earlier British envoys.

Above the seal is a vignette that shows a lion crouching in front of a sun. Pairing these images conveys an affinity between the Mughals and the English pertaining to ideas of imperial authority. The lion and the sun were motifs in official Mughal flags and coins, which stood for empire and kingship. The Latin inscription, “all-powerful emblem of the Great Mughals,” encircles the image and reinforces the message of dynastic authority. The royal seal of James I, as the king of England and Scotland, also carried the lion motif. In later centuries, the lion stood for British imperial power, while the sun became associated with the popular saying, “the empire on which the sun never sets.”

Roe’s strategic map at once caters to Britain’s commercial ambitions and marks a pivotal moment in the development of its empire. The map is staggering in its scope, even though it leaves out India’s southern tip. Narrow at the bottom and dramatically expansive as it moves toward the top, the map has a skewed proportion. These omissions and inaccuracies in the geography are part of the point: already in 1619, Britain was envisioning India according to its own vision for the country’s exploitation. 

A student research post from the Fall 2024 graduate seminar The Mind of the Book (HSAR 620). More information and link to other research posts.